فعل در جمله مرکز بار گرامری آن جمله می باشد. فعل در جمله بعد از فاعل قرار می گیرد. افعال انگلیسی عمومأ از پنج مصدر زیر مشتق می شوند:
1- مصدر ساده: to walk / to give ریشه فعلto +
2- مصدر استمراری: to be giving to be walking / to be + verb ing
3- مصدر کامل: to + have + p.p. to have walked / to have given
4- مصدر کامل استمراری: to + have + been + verb ing
To have been walking/to have been giving
5- مصدر مجهول: to + be + p.p. to be walked / to be given
زمان ها:
v حال: ساده، استمراری، کامل، کامل استمراری.
v گذشته: ساده، استمراری، کامل، کامل استمراری.
v آینده: ساده، استمراری، کامل، کامل استمراری.
حال ساده: he studies/ I study English every day مصدر ساده بدونto subject +
ü برای فاعل سوم شخص مفرد(he, she, it, Ali) به فعل sیا ies اضافه می کنیم:I play, she plays well
1- برای بیان عادات و تکرار همیشگی از حال ساده استفاده می شود:
She always goes to bed late. They often walk home. We watch TV every night. You go there very often. I usually go to school by bus.
2- برای بیان حقایق مسلم از حال ساده استفاده می شود:
The earth revolves around the sun. Birds fly. Dogs bark. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. A mother loves her children. The world is round.
Ø برای سوالی و منفی کردن زمان حال ساده از فعل کمکی )do برای (I, you, we, they و does( برای فاعل سوم شخص مفرد: (she, he, it, Ali استفاده میکنیم:
They begin their work at 7 every morning.
Do they begin their work at 7 every morning?
They don’t begin their work at 7 every morning.
Helen sometimes washes the dishes at night.
Does Helen sometimes wash the dishes at night?
Helen doesn’t sometimes wash the dishes at night.
ü منفی کردن فعل to be: اضافه کردن not به فعل: I am a teacher → I am not a teacher
Am I a teacher? (Are you a teacher?) →
حال استمراری: subject + am, is, are + verb + ing we are studying now
1- برای بیان کاری که هم اکنون در حال انجام است:
He is writing a letter. She is doing her homework. Ali is listening to some music. I am speaking English right now. You are wearing a black T shirt. It is raining now.
2- برای بیان شروع، استمرار، یا اتمام کاری:
It is beginning to snow. My cold is becoming worse. Her studies are going to end.
3- برای بیان یک قرار در آینده استفاده می شود. در این صورت جمله باید دارای قید آینده باشد:
He is giving a lecture tomorrow. The ship is sailing next week. Her parents are coming here next summer. Ali and I are dating next weekend.
Ø برای سوالی و منفی کردن زمان حال استمراری به فعل کمکی not اضافه می کنیم:
The weather is not getting colder these days. They are not swimming now.
· بعضی از افعال که بیانگر حالات می باشند، استمراری نمی شوند. یعنی نمی توان به آنها ing افزود:
Know: I know your father. I am knowing your father.
Believe, doubt, recognize, remember, understand, like, dislike, please, prefer, fear, hate, mind, belong, possess, own, need, want, wish, exist, hear, sound, seem, agree, disagree, mean, surprise, amaze, promise, look like, resemble, contain, matter.
· بعضی از افعال وقتی بیانگر حالات هستند استمراری نمی شوند اما وقتی بیانگر عملکردها می باشند، استمراری می شوند:
Progressive | Non-progressive | Verb |
Ali is looking out the window. She is appearing on a TV show today. I am thinking about my family now. I am feeling a little tired today. I am having a good time. (having lunch) The doctor is seeing a patient now. The chef is tasting the soup. She is smelling the rose. She is loving parenthood. | It looks cold outside. She appears to be tired today. I think that he is a good teacher. I feel that she is a good student. I have a bicycle. I saw a bird in the sky. The soup tastes salty. Something smells bad. She loves her kids. | Look Appear Think Feel Have See Taste Smell Love |
گذشته ساده: he watched TV last night. ( یا شکل دوم فعل بی قاعده subject + verb + ed (
ü برای ساختن زمان گذشته به افعال با قاعده (regular) ed, اضافه می کنیم. افعال بی قاعده (irregular) شکلشان عوض می شود.( برای آشنایی با افعال بی قاعده به انتهای کتاب مراجعه شود. )
1- برای بیان کاری که در گذشته معینی به اتمام رسیده است:
It snowed yesterday. He studied English last week. I walked to school last day. They lived in Mashhad last year. We bought a new car three days ago. You left here 2 weeks ago. Ali saw him last weekend. It began to rain last fall. I was a teacher many years ago. I tried to win a few minutes ago.
2- برای بیان تکرار در گذشته از گذشته ساده استفاده می کنیم:
He came here every day last month. I always went to school by bus. I always played soccer many times ago.
Ø برای سوالی و منفی کردن زمان گذشته ساده از فعل کمکی did استفاده می کنیم:
Marry arrived late. → Did Marry arrive late? → Marry didn’t arrive late.
They did their homework well.→ Did they do their homework well? → They didn’t do their homework well.
We were students. → were we students? → We weren’t students.
Some irregular verbs | ||
Past participle | Simple past | Simple form |
Let Put Hurt | Let Put Hurt | Let Put Hurt |
Become Run | Became Ran | Become Run |
Been Gone | Was-were Went | Be Go |
Learned/learnt Burned/burnt | Learned/learnt Burned/burnt | Learn Burn |
Had Left Made Met | Had Left Made Met | Have Leave Make Meet |
Eaten Given Fallen | Ate Gave Fell | Eat Give Fall |
Begun Drunk Swum | Began Drank swam | Begin Drink Swim |
Past | Present/future | Uses | Auxiliary |
He may have been at the library. | May I borrow your pen? You may leave the room. John may be at the library. | 1-درخواست مودبانه - فقط با I/we 2-اجازه رسمی 3-احتمال با 50% اطمینان | May |
He might have been at the library. | John might be at the library. Might I borrow your pen? | 1- احتمال با 50% اطمینان 2-درخواست مودبانه | Might |
You should have studied more, but you didn’t. She should have done well on the test. | You should go to the doctor. She should do well on the test tomorrow. | 1-توصیه و نصیحت
2-90% اطمینان (احتمال وقوع) | Should |
You ought to have studied more, but you didn’t. She ought to have done well on the test. | You ought to go to the doctor. She ought to do well on the test tomorrow. | 1-توصیه و نصیحت
2-90% اطمینان (احتمال وقوع) | Ought to |
You had better be on time, or we will leave without you. | توصیه و نصیحت با تهدید نتایج بد | Had better | |
Class was supposed to begin at 10:00. | Class is supposed to begin at 10:00. | 1-احتمال وقوع (قرار) 2- احتمال وقوع (قرار) انجام نشده | Be supposed to |
You had to go to class. She must have been sick yesterday. | You must go to class today. You must not open the door. She must be sick. | 1-اجبار قوی 2-منع (منفی) 3- احتمال با 95% اطمینان | Must |
I had to go to class. I didn’t have to go to class | I have to go to class today. I don’t have to go to class today. | 1-اجبار 2-عدم اجبار (منفی) | Have to |
I had to go to class. | I have got to go to class today. | اجبار | Have got to |
He will be here at 6:00. I will do the job. Will you please help me? | 1-آینده با 100% اطمینان 2-تمایل انجام کاری 3-درخواست مودبانه | Will | |
I was going to paint my room, but I didn’t. | He is going to be here at 6:00. I'm going to paint my bedroom. | 1-پیش بینی با 100% اطمینان 2-قصد انجام کاری 3-طرح های ناتمام | Be going to |
I could run fast, but now I can't. That can't have been true | I can run fast. You can use my car tomorrow. Can I borrow your pan? That can't be true. | 1-توانایی/امکان 2-اجازه دوستانه 3-درخواست مودبانه 4-عدم امکان (منفی) | Can |
I could run fast when I was a child. You could have talked. He could have been at home. That couldn’t have been true. | Could I borrow your pen? You could talk to your teacher. He could be at home. That couldn’t be true. | 1-توانایی در گذشته 2-درخواست مودبانه 3-پیشنهاد 4-احتمال با 50% اطمینان 5- عدم امکان (منفی) | Could |
I was able to help you. | I am able to help you. | توانایی | Be able to |
I would rather have gone to the park. When I was a child, I would visit my grandparents every week. I would have liked a cookie, but there were none left. | Would you please help me? I would rather go to the park than stay home. I would like an apple please.
| 1-درخواست مودبانه 2-ترجیح 3-کارهای تکراری در گذشته 4-خواستن مودبانه 5-آرزوهای انجام نشده | Would |
I used to visit my grandparents every weekend. I used to live in Spain, but now I live in Korea. | 1-کارهای تکراری در گذشته 2-موقعیتی در گذشته که دیگر وجود ندارد | Used to | |
Shall I open the window? I shall arrive at nine. | 1-سوال مودبانه برای طرح پیشنهاد 2-آینده با I/we | Shall |
قید کلمه ای است که یک فعل، یک صفت، یا یک قید دیگر را توصیف می کند:
چگونگی انجام فعل را توصیف می کنند He walks quickly. She plays tennis well. I opened the door quietly
I am extremely happy. She is a very good tennis player. We are profoundly satisfied.
I feel very well. She plays tennis quite badly. They behaved entirely impolitely.
انواع قید:
1- قید زمان: برای بیان زمان وقوع فعل در جمله به کار می رود. Adverbs of time: today, yesterday, tomorrow, recently, later, the day before yesterday, now, then …
They were recently married. The ship will arrive tomorrow. I go to school every morning. We meet each other in the meeting in the afternoon.
2- قید مکان: برای بیان مکان وجهت وقوع فعل در جمله به کار می رود. Adverbs of place:
Here, away, outside, left, straight, west, in the museum, towards the window, up, down …
It is warm inside the house. He was walking along the street. She went to the hospital.
3- قید تکرار: برای بیان تکرار انجام کار در جمله می آیند. Adverbs of frequency: occasionally, frequently, always, often, normally, constantly, continually, usually, regularly, sometimes, never, rarely, seldom, forever, in no way, hardly, scarcely …
The teacher always comes on time. She is always on time. Is she always on time?
Does she always come on time? She has always come on time.
ü اگر قیدهای منفی اول جمله بیایند، ترکیب جمله به شکل سوالی خواهد بود. بدون علامت سوال در پایان جمله:
She never leaves her classes early. Never does she leave her classes early.
He seldom came here late. Seldom did he come here late.
I will rarely do that again. Rarely will I do that again.
They are hardly good students. Hardly are they good students.
4- قید حالت: برای بیان حالت وقوع فعل در جمله می آیند. Adverbs of manner: quickly, sadly, awkwardly, slowly, quietly, easily, happily, simply, carelessly …
She dances gracefully. He sadly whispered to me. They answered promptly.
ü برای ساختن قید حالت کافیست به انتهای صفت ly اضافه کنیم:
Brave + ly →bravely true + ly →truly basic + ly →basically public + ly→ publicly geographic + ly → geographically easy + ly →easily
Ø کلمات زیر اگر چه به ly ختم می شوند، اما صفت هستند:
Lovely, likely, lonely, friendly … she is a lovely girl.
5- قید شدت: برای بیان شدت صفت یا قید دیگر در جمله می آید. Adverbs of degree (intensifiers): very, quite, extremely, too, adequately, almost, nearly, totally, greatly, highly …
She dances very gracefully. It is too cold outside. He did it partially well.
جایگاه قید تکرار در جمله:
1- To be + adverb she is sometimes late. They are always talkative. - رثقغegree (intensifiers): ر جمله می آید سعذتثزفays talkative. ely, almost, nearly, totally, greatly, highly ...
2- Subject + adverb + verb she sometimes comes late.
3- بعد از فعل کمکی اول: she has sometimes come late.
She has sometimes been coming late. They have always been talking loudly.
جایگاه قید حالت در جمله: قبل از فعل اصلی و آخر جمله.
The experiment has been carefully planned. The experiment has been planned carefully. You should listen to me carefully. You should carefully listen to me.
We always meet you at school in a very friendly way every morning.
قید زمان + قید حالت + قید مکان + قید تکرار
Ø کلمات زیر هم صفت هستند هم قید:
Early, daily, nightly, weekly, fast, hard, low, high, well, short, long, wrong, right, left, near, far, direct, straight, late …
It is a monthly magazine. This magazine is published monthly.
A fast train goes fast.
The work is hard. He works hard.
She gave us a wrong answer. She led us wrong.
That is a high building. The birds are flying high.
· قیود بی قاعده:best →well →better
Badly → worse → worst much → more →most
Little →less →least late →later → last
Far → further →furthest
قبل از اسامی از حروف تعریف نامعین(َA or An) یا حرف تعریف معین((The استفاده می کنیم.
کاربرد :A قبل از اسامی قابل شمارش، مفرد، و نامشخص(ناشناس).
I saw a man in the street. (A men)
I drink a cup of coffee. (A coffee)
I saw a lion at the zoo. It is a used car. He is a usual teacher. I visited a one eyed man. It was a horrible event. She is a university student.
کاربرد An : قبل از اسامی قابل شمارش، مفرد، و نامشخص(ناشناس). به شرط آنکه کلمه با صداهای صدادار خوانده شود: (a, e, i, o, u)
An unusual teacher, an egg, an apple, an old man, an hour, an honorable person, a union, a one way street, a ewe, a European country. There is an L in the word light. She is an English woman. (An English)
کاربرد :The قبل از اسامی مفرد یا جمع، مشخص(شناخته شده)، و خاص.
1- اگر اسمی در متن بیش از یک بار قید شود نیاز به حرف تعریف the دارد:
On the way home, I saw a man. The man had a dog. The dog was barking…
2- اسامی در مفهوم کلی نیاز به حرف تعریف ندارند، اما در اشاره به یک چیز خاص نیاز به the دارند:
Lions are wild animals. The lion was angry.
Gold is an expensive metal. The gold in your ring is of poor quality.
I don’t like coffee. I don’t like the coffee your mother makes.
3- با چهار جهت اصلی از the استفاده میکنیم:
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
4- با اشیاء آشنا وچیزهای طبیعی از the استفاده می کنیم:
He walked into the house and hung his coat in the closet. They were sailing along the river watching the clouds in the sky. She ran out of the park and shut the door.
The planet, the moon, the earth, the army, the navy, the UN, the stars, the sun, the world, the globe, the universe, the galaxy, the equator, the north pole, the south pole, the middle east, the near east, the solar system, the milky way, the civil war, the store, the street, the clothes, the New York Times, the middle ages, the flu, the prime minister, the executive, the democratic party, the democrats.
The rivers: the Rhine, the Nile, the Mississippi River.
The seas: the Caspian Sea, the Red sea, the Black sea, the Mediterranean sea.
The oceans: the pacific ocean, the Atlantic.
The canals: the Suez Canal, the Panama Canal, the English Channel,
The mountains: the Alps, the Alborz, the Rocky Mountains. رشته کوه ها
5- قبل از صفات ترتیبی از theاستفاده می کنیم:
The first book on the shelf is mine and the second is yours.
The fifth lesson, the best way, the third, the ninth day…
6- قبل از صفات عالی (تفضیلی) از theاستفاده می کنیم:
She is the kindest girl that I have ever seen.
The best, the most expensive, the richest, the happiest…
7- مرجع ضمایر موصول معمولا همراه با the می باشد:
The woman who is standing near the board is our teacher. The magazines which are on the radio are his. He is the man whom you telephoned.
8- اگر وسیله موسیقی نواخته شود همراه با the می باشد ولی اگر نواخته نشود the نمی خواهد:
At the party he played the piano and I played the violin. I bought a guitar yesterday.
9- برای بیان تمام خانواده از the استفاده می کنیم:
We invited the Browns to dinner. We invited Mr. Brown to dinner.
10- صفت تفضیلی ,The +..... صفت تفضیلی+ The
The sooner, the better. The harder he works, the less he succeeds. The prettier the girl, the more foolish she behaves.
11- The قبل از صفات زمان و مکان:
A student in the last row was asleep. On the next day he gave his lecture/ he will give his lecture next week/ he gave his lecture last week.
The present, the following, the future, the beginning, the middle, the end, at the moment, for the time being, during the year, the top, the bottom, the back, the front, the outside, the inside.
12- قبل از زبان ها از the استفاده نمی کنیم: (مگر اینکه کلمه language همراه با آن باشد.)
I studied English in Iran.
I like the English language more than the French language.
13- چنانچه صفات ذیل همراه با the باشند، مفهوم جمع دارند:
) The Portuguese, the English, and the French people… اهل پرتقال): صفات ملیتی
The English seldom speak at breakfast.
The Japanese have many things in common with the chines.
The poor get poorer and the rich get richer.
After the battle we buried the dead. (Living, sick, deaf, blind …)
14- قبل از وعده های غذایی عام از the استفاده نمی کنیم:
Mom is fixing lunch. Breakfast is at 6:30. I usually eat salad for dinner.
But: the dinner was held at the Grand Hotel.
15- استفاده از the قبل از فصول اختیاری است:
He likes (the) summer more than (the) autumn.
) But: she was killed in a car crash in the winter of 1999. فصل خاص)
16- قبل از عنوان بازی ها از the استفاده نمی کنیم:
He likes football but hates baseball.
17- قبل ازماه ها از the استفاده نمی کنیم:
She was born in September.
18- اسامی کشورها، کوه ها، قله ها، قاره ها، شهر ها، استان ها، دریاچه ها، جزایر، و پارک ها نیازی به the ندارند:
Peru, Japan, Korea. But: the Sudan, the Netherlands, the Argentina, the Yemen.
Iran is a vast country. Italy, Germany, Austria, and France are all European countries.
But: the Islamic Republic of Iran, (Of phrase): the Republic of china, the Gulf of Mexico, the University of Pennsylvania, the state of New York, the Republic of Korea.
Everest, Damavand, California, Florida, Lake Michigan, Khorasan, Central park, Forty second street, and Coney Island
But: the Philippine Islands, the United States, the Great Lakes, the Balkans (plural names).
19- قبل از کلمات زیر the بکار نمی رود. اما اگر با the بیایند یک مفهوم ثانویه را مطرح می کنند:
School, college, university, church, hospital, prison, jail, market…
) He went to school. به مدرسه برای تحصیل میرود.)
ثرثقثسفemen. . Korea. lvania, f of Mexico, f 1999. ture last week. ear, the top, the bottom, the back, the front, the outside,
He went to the school. (به مدرسه برای کار دیگری میرود نه تحصیل)
) We went to the prison to visit him. به زندان برای ملاقات میروند نه برای اینکه زندانی شوند)
20- کاربرد های دیگر:
Most of the students passed the examination. (All of the, many of the, one-third of the…)
The main reason for her resignation was her bad health. (The only, the chief, the principal)
Idioms: make the bed, Clear the table, wash the dishes, tell the truth…
Abstract
This study investigates the effect of different kinds of anxiety on learning a foreign language, and how it differs in male and females. The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between permanent and momentary anxiety and learning a foreign language. It is assumed that extreme anxiety will have negative effect on language learning. The participants in this study are fifty English language learners at intermediate level from Mehrsajjad institute. They are randomly selected based on stratified random sample. Twenty five of them are male and the rest are female. The age of the participants is in a range of 23-25 years old. So it is controlled in this study. The level of anxiety of the participants is measured through the Spielberg questionnaire. It contains forty questions which measure both type of anxiety and is enclosed at the end of the study. One measure of learning English as foreign language is used to estimate the degree of proficiency in English: the students’ final examination scores. The exams are found to be valid and reliable. By calculating frequency, mean, standard deviation, and T- test we can explore the kind of relationship between variables. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is used to test the null hypothesis of a significant relationship (H0: rxy=0) at p<0/05 directional. (Because correlation found is expected to be negative). All assumptions for the statistical test are found to be met. It is expected to come in conclusion at the end that extreme anxiety will lower language learning, and gender also will be influential in the degree of the anxiety and language learning reciprocally (p<0.05). In other words it is assumed that women are more stressful than men in general. The results will be discussed in terms of how meaningful the actual mean differences are and what the implications are for the psycholinguistics, teachers, and learners.